The Honeys Learning Cycle Nursing Essay

The Honeys Learning Cycle Nursing Essay This essay will discuss why I think an understanding of learning styles is useful to the student nurse by focusing on reflection using the Honeys learning cycle and how it helps to demonstrate the importance of recognising ones learning styles. It will provide an understanding of learning and theories of learning. It will also discuss my dominant learning style and how I will develop an aspect of my weaker style to support my learning process on the programme. For the student nurse to understand and identify their learning style, he or she has to understand the theories of learning. Gould, J. (2009) stated that different theorists will have different ideas as to what constitutes learning and different arguments and evidence to support their position. Learning has so many definitions. Learning can be defined in various ways depending on whether one is focusing on learning as an internal process or one is thinking of learning as a series of external inputs and output. Since there is no simple way to define learning, I would describe learning as the process of acquiring, interpreting and understanding information through various ways at any place and given time such as life experiences, formal and informal education. Therefore, learning can be described as an input, process and product. Peter honey (2006) described learning as a skill that needs to be consciously reviewed and developed. Pavlov (1927) and Skinner (1953) used the behaviourist approach to establish that learning is a change in behaviour brought about by some action or experience. (Cited by Gould Jim, 2009). From a cognitive perspective, learning can be defined as a change in cognitive structures; the way in which we perceive events and organise experiences to arrive at an understanding. (Gould Jim p 46). Eysenck and keane (2005) states that learning is concerned with the internal process of the environment, and deciding what action might be appropriate. Many researchers have adopted Kolbs (1976) experiential learning theory and applied it to different educational areas because it explains more about the learning theory. It is useful for the student nurse to familiarise ones self with the learning cycle, as it helps to understand the process of learning. Peter Honeys learning cycle suggests that we learn through an experience, but only if we process or interpret the experience and make sense of it. These can be done by following the stages of the learning cycle which includes having an experience, reviewing the experience and planning the next step. For instance when the student nurse goes on placement, one is expected to adhere to the necessary nursing midwifery code of conduct by delivering effective and quality care. To do this, one has to reflect on ways to develop new skills and ways do things differently. For example, Mr Y made a complaint that your level of communication is poor. To reflect on the situation, review the experie nce you had with Mr Y by asking yourself what you did wrong and observe the way your colleagues, mentor and other healthcare workers communicate with other patients. Then focus on the differences you observed between the way you and your mentor approached the patient. And conclude by learning what your mentor did differently e.g body language, tone, speech, good eye level. One has to have critical thinking skill in order to be able reflect on experiences (p.25). Moons (2008) states that critical thinking for us is a process, where different information is gathered, sifted, synthesised and evaluated, in order to understand a subject. He went on to suggest that the ability of a nurse to think critically will enable the nurse to function as a knowledgeable doer i.e. someone who selects, combines, judges and uses information in order to proceed in a professional manner. (Cited by bob p.8.) Bob argued that reflection is a process whereby experience is examined in ways that give meaning to interactions. Therefore, the student nurse has to evaluate and understand the subject or experience before he or she interprets it. The learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points and it should be approached as a continuous process since the four stages of the learning cycle are mutually dependent on another (Honey 2006 p.6.) People have preferences for everything. Since individuals learn at different rates and in different ways, there is a very high possibility that they would have a preferred style or way of learning. Learning styles are the preferred ways we perceive and interact to the various elements and in any learning situation. Different things affect the way we learn e.g. background, culture, religion etc. For example some students enjoy listening to a lecture and making their own notes, while others who also enjoy listening to the lecture prefer to have handouts to read at a later time. Peter honey identified four main learning style preferences. These learning styles include activist, reflector, pragmatist and theorist. Since most people develop strategies to help cope with studies and work, it is important for the student nurse to recognise ones learning styles or methods in order to maximise the way one will learn. Learning style preferences influence the way a student responds to the learning opportunities within any educational experience and affects their ability to direct their own learning. (Oshea, 2003). Our preferred style of learning influences the way one will tend to organise and present information. Student nurses will find understanding learning styles useful because it will help improve their skills in placement or in their future nursing career by broadening their repertoire. Recently, it has been established that nurses who want to specialise in areas require a broad skill base involving advanced technical expertise, critical thinking, communication, leadership and motivation, computer literacy and cultural sensitivity (Bechtel et al 1999). Recognising ones learning style encourages the student nurse to reflect and learn from any experience one might face during practice placement and also, enable the student nurse to create ways of doing things differently and better if the experience were to happen again. Frankel, A.  (2009)  stated that a skilled and competent workforce ensures patient safety, and will be able to recognise and respond to clinical need more appropriately. Awareness of ones learning style allows one to learn at best whether learning is taking place in the classroom or at placement. Terry (2001) stated that learning styles and the promotion of effective learning environments have been a focus of research for many decades (cited by Wetzig 2004 p.2). According to (Frankel 2009) study, the ability to learn, understand, interpret and then apply learning to practice has a significant impact on delivering effective clinical care. The student nurse is always faced with different challenges or experiences in placement; it is therefore the responsibility of the student nurse to reflect on his or her role during placement. This process is called reflection on action (evaluation) and reflection in action (decision making). Evidence suggests that through improving students awareness of their own learning style, they are better able to take responsibility for their own learning, which leads to improved learning outcomes (Fritz 2002). It is also the responsibility of the student nurse to work alongside the mentor and other health care workers to maximise ones potential. The literature review according to (Frankel 2009) supports the view that consideration for individual learning styles is fundamental in designing effective training programmes and that learning is a key concept and value which underpins nursing and its development. Kolb (1984) identified four distinct learning styles based on a four-stage learning cycle. Building on Kolbs work, Honey (2006) developed the Learning Styles Questionnaire to help identify ones learning style. Using the learning style questionnaire (Honey, 2006), I have been able to identify my learning styles as a theorist and reflector because these are the best ways am able to learn new things or skills. My dominant learning styles emerged after completing the questionnaire, my highest overall score (10) was for the Theorist category, these indicates my dominant learning style, while, the reflector category represents my predominant learning style. I believe these findings to be true as I am able to remember or visualise ideas in my head from diagrams, tables and mind maps. I take thorough notes in lectures and when studying textbooks and I usually study better by myself. As a reflector, I like to think and look at a situation from different perspectives before taking any action. I am always quiet and always try to listen attentively in order to grasp what the teacher is saying. Researching and reviewing information carefully has always been my way of study before coming to any conclusions or decisions. I was also able to identify my weaker styles as an activist and pragmatist. Knowing my underutilised learning style can help me as a student nurse to get the necessary help I require and to undertake activities to develop the weaker learning style. Honey (2006) argued the best learners are equally comfortable with all the stages in the learning cycle. Therefore, it is important to strengthen ones weaker styles to be able to learn as whole because having preferences can lead to distortions. Cottrell (2003) advises that whether you discover that you have a learning style preference or not, it may change because we are adaptable creatures (cited by davis Nicholas p.8). Effective learners make full use of their dominant preferences, while also developing and acquiring useful features from their underutilised styles. In nursing, learning occurs best in practice by preparing oneself to undertake other learning styles such as reflecting on the experience you had in placement. This will enable the student nurse to make the most out of the experience. (Nicola p.80). As a student nurse, my learning occurs both in the university and within practice, so I need to be prepared to learn in more than one way. I will consider investing more time and energy in the parts of the learning cycle that I am least comfortable with. I will ensure that I am aware of the activities that both an activist and a pragmatist will learn best and least from. The ways to strengthen my activist style is by taking calculated risk, increasing my tolerance for spontaneity and trying out different ways of doing things, while the ways to strengthen my pragmatist style is by being realistic, exploring new ideas and judging the usefulness of ideas based on practicality. I will also seek for help and support from the university and course tutor.

The great mortality

While there is much that is not known about the great pestilence which struck Europe most savagely in 1348 to 1350, this much can be said: in all of human history, there has never been a most devastating event. The modern analysis of surviving records indicates that the mortality rate throughout Europe averaged at least 50 percent. In the course of three years, one of every two human beings died, victims of a plague for which there was no effective remedy.In most communities, the pestilence struck and killed within a few months while sweeping on to other communities, making the impact of the staggering death toll all the more devastating. . A good deal has been written about this pestilence, and John Aberth makes an admirable contribution with his small book, The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350: A Brief History with Documents. Most of this book is documents from the period of the great pestilence, and these give insight into the suffering that swept across Europe during this period.When Aberth does interject comments, his observations are brief but thoroughly prescient. One of Aberth’s finest pieces is his comment on one of the great mysteries of the disease which destroyed so much of Europe. (Aberth 23-27) We do not know what it was. As Aberth notes, the term now commonly used for this disease, the Black Death, was not used by contemporaries. It was first coined in the sixteenth century. (Aberth 1) The modern reason for describing this disease as an outbreak of the Bubonic Plague is the outbreak of a similar, if much less devastating pestilence in Asia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.(Aberth 1, 23; Herlihy 20-21) During that plague, microbiologists isolated a bacterium as the cause of the outbreak, and given the similarity of symptoms, historians posit that the pestilence that devastated Europe in 1348 to 1350 was a variety of the same plague. (Aberth 23-25) Aberth does a fine job of reviewing the strengths and the weakn esses of the modern discussion, including issues about the temperature at which plague-bearing fleas flourish (Aberth 25-26), and also the strengths and weaknesses of his medieval sources (Aberth 24-27) .After all, knowing nothing of bacteriology and painfully little about the behavior of fleas and rats, medieval chroniclers were could hardly predict what modern scientists would like to know about the details of the disease their forebears encountered. As Aberth concludes, there are several problems with the conclusion that the pestilence of 1348 was the bubonic plague, but there are even greater difficulties with any alternative explanation that has been offered. (Aberth 26-27)Part of the difficulty with the notion that the pestilence was the bubonic plague lies with the fact that the flea which commonly carries the plague bacillus prefers to inhabit rats rather than humans, and will abandon the rat only when it dies of the plague and its body begins to cool. (ABerth 25-26; Herlihy 21-23) Reflecting this fact, modern outbreaks of the bubonic plague have been marked by the widespread death of rats. Albert Camus mentions this occurrence as the first sign of the arrival of the pestilence in his novel, The Plague.While some medieval sources do mention the widespread death of rats, it is not widely mentioned. However, the failure of these sources to mention a particular occurrence is questionable evidence from which to argue that something did not occur. For a wide variety of reasons, medieval chroniclers may not have connected the death of rats with the outbreak of the plague. Aberth also mentions that fleas can hide for long periods of time in grain, one of the items frequently carried along the routes which the plague followed.(Aberth 25-27; Ziegler 16, Horrax 7-8), Another difficulty which modern scholars have encountered is that the symptoms of the plague as described in the medieval documents do not match closely the symptoms noted in early twentieth century victims of the plague. Here Aberth shows his understanding of the complex scientific literature in the field, noting that plague bacillus has been shown to have a remarkable capacity for mutation, so that it is quite possible that what swept through Europe wasa particularly virulent mutation of the plague, a strain causing symptom somewhat different from those encountered in modern pandemics. (Aberth 26) The effects of the plague have been debated almost since they first occurred. Some historians contend that, especially in England, the plague so reduced that number of available laborers as to raise their standard of living as employers had to compete for their services.Here again, Aberth outdoes many other writers, by showing that variety and complexity of the economic responses to the devastating loss of population. In some areas, such as Egypt, the plague seems to have caused comparatively little change in economic relationships. (Aberth 67-70) In England, as noted, the conditio n of the lower classes gradually improved, and eventually, the true feudal system of serfs bond to the land fell away under the strain of the economic forces unleashed by the shift in the population.Aberth also acknowledges that the plague prompted many labor-saving inventions which helped improve the lot of the common folk, but adds a very sound admonition: any social or economic gain that cost the lives of half of the continent’s population must be hailed with considerable caution. (Aberth 68-70) In this analysis, Aberth again shows a good deal more subtlety and sophistication than many other historians who have tried to view the effects of the plague along more straightforward, if somewhat simplistic lines.In one of the noted revisionist essays, David Herlihy, for example, contended that Europe prior to the plague had reached a Malthusian breaking point: the population had expanded to the point where it was exhausting food production, and its continued geometric expansion versus the arithmetic expansion of the food supply had created a crisis. By greatly reducing the population, the plague alleviated this crisis while stimulating a wide range of inventions which eventually made much great food production possible.(Herlihy 31-39, 46-57) While not dismissing this interpretation, Aberth shows that it cannot explain the economic and social developments that occurred throughout Europe. These developments were sufficiently varied that no single theory can consistently bind them all together. (Aberth 69-70; Zeigler 203-09) While economic developments in the wake of the plague might be classified as â€Å"rational† responses to the pestilence, Aberth allows dwells on the hysterical responses, which took two primary forms: pogroms against the Jews and the flagellants.These two phenomena sometimes were related, as the flagellants blamed Jews for the outbreak of the plague, but also finds the phenomena occurring separately. The flagellants marked a parti cularly strange form of hysteria, organizing themselves into bands of zealots who carried the mortification of the flesh to gruesome lengths. With their belief that they alone had found the way to satisfy a wrathful God, they represented a break with the authority of the Catholic Church, something that led to their excommunication and their suppression by both religious and secular authorities.(Aberth 117-20;Zeigler 62-81) In a brief final chapter, Aberth considers how the plague altered the European conception of death. Here he notes some of the artistic changes that came about in the wake of th plague, including the appearance of â€Å"transi† tombs, which he describes as â€Å"a variation on tomb monuments by substituting or contrasting a skeletal and rotting cadaver to the idealized life-like portrait of the patron.† (Aberth 169) One example of this is the tomb of Francois de la Sarra, on which the arms crossed over the chest are covered with worms and four frogs o r toads sit on the face, covering the mouth and eyes. (Aberth 166, doc. 44) Another curious document that he presents is the :Disputacioun betwyx the Body and Wormes,† in which a noblewoman’s body argues with the worms that gnaw away the flesh after her death. (Aberth 176-78, doc. 46) The great majority of this book is made up of documentary selections, and Aberth has chosen his sources well.His introductory comments show the significance of each document, . and he notes grimly that many of those who tried to chronicle the plague fell victim to its ravages. He also shows the sad state of knowledge, in which the great medical faculty of the University of Paris, considered one of the leading centers of learning in its day, could find no better cause for the plague than the conjunction of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars in Aquarius in 1345.(Aberth 41-42) While many authorities, Christian and Muslim, agreed that the plague was highly contagious, medical science was se veral hundred years from advancing any theory which would explain contagion in any credible way, and even farther from effecting a cure. The contradictory advice, the irrelevance of many proposed cures, and the gruesome stress on blood-letting show the sad state of medical knowledge at that time. (Aberth 45-66) Perhaps the grimmest aspect of these documents are the many comments showing the collapse of hope and human compassion during this terrible disease.Time and again, there is the repeated refrain of abandonment. With the disease almost invariably fatal, once a person was stricken, relatives and acquaintance would flee rather than risk being afflicted. Over and over, the documents reflect this in a litany of abandonment, (Aberth 33-34,54, 76) There has been no later pandemic on the order of the pestilence of 1348 to 1350. By comparison, deaths due to AIDS/HIV would have to increase more than a thousandfold to equal the slaughter that the plague inflicted.One can only hope that n o such pandemic recurs. SOURCES USED: Aberth, John. The Black Death: the Great Mortality of 1348-1350 (New York, New York: Palgrave McMillion, 2005). Camus, Albert. The Plague. (New York, New York: Vintage Books 1991). Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West. (Cambridge, Massachusetts,L Harvard University Press, 1997). Horraxs, Rosemary. The Black Death (Manchester England: Manchester University Press, 1994). Ziegler, Philip. The Black Death. (Thrupp, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing 1969).

Three Major Concerns of a Driver

Three Major Concerns of a Driver When driving, there are many concerns drivers should be aware of. These concerns make driving safer for anyone on the road. The three major concerns I am going to talk about today are road conditions, following distance, and speed. These are only a few of the many concerns a driver should have when driving. Driving is not safe therfore you must take it as serious as possible. If a driver ignores these concerns there will be consequences whether it is by the law or a fatal collision. The first concern drivers should have while driving is for the conditon of the road. Road conditions change on a daily basis due to the weather and the time of day. A good driver knows that if it is raining or snowing outside the roads will be slick. Therfore they should drive not only slower but also more cautious. Another factor that effects the condition of the road is the kind of road. Rural roads tend to be more narrow and less maintained so you shoud look out for pot holes. Each kind of road should be treated differently because they all have different dangers. My second concern is it is important for a driver to have a safe distance between you and the next car, this is known as your following distance. This is a very important concern to have. I was effected by this about three months ago when i reared ended another driver due to not having anough distance between me and the next car. Surprisingly I am thankful for the accident because I am now a very safe and cautious driver. Your fallowing distance at twenty-five mph should be two to three car lengths between you and the car in front of you. Your following distance should increase one car length for every ten mph. A driver who fails to follow these facts will sooner or later end up in rear end accident just like I did, but the results could be much much worse. The last major concern a driver should have that I am going to talk about is speed. Speed is defined as the rate of change. When talking about automobiles speed is a very seriouse topic. As you increase your speed in any vehicle you have to be aware of the increase in change of things around you and need to be able to react faster to these changes. When speed is abused nothing good can come from it. Many accidents occur because of an individual who was speeding and or loses contoll due to speeding. In conclusion, drivers need to be constanty concerned of their surroundings. Speed road conditions and following distance are only three of the many concerns a driver should have. Driving is not a game or a right it is a very seriouse priviledg. Many people think if you wear your saftey belt and dont speed you'll be ok. The fact of the matter is that driving is NOT safe! Certain cars make driving safe but there are always unavoidable dangers while driving. If you are constantly awar of these dangers then you will be a much safer driver and have a lesser chance of being one of the unluckey people who get into any kind of accident.

Swot Analysis And General Report On The New Jica Organisation Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4509 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? In this report more analysis about aspects of New JICA organisation has been clearly and in deep explored. The introduction part has covered about the Aim of this case study, the Background of JICA organisation covering its evolution starting where the organisation was first found. The use of SWOT analysis as a tool of evaluating the performance of the organisation has been in large covered where also the recommendations have been pointed out to cope with the organisations internal weakness and its external threats Also this report has covered the area of the organisation structure, importance of organisation structure, advantages and disadvantages of each type of structure and the organisation structure used by the New JICA. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Swot Analysis And General Report On The New Jica Organisation Business Essay" essay for you Create order Also this report has explained the concept of management change, the meaning of change, principle of change, how to affect the management of change in the organisation. The last part cover the conclusion and recommendation of case study. CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction 1.1 THE AIM OF THE REPORT The aim of this report is to determine whether the objectives of NEW JICA have been archived particularly in Tanzania. The action plans for Tanzania development as well the precise understanding of the development needs of Tanzania through supervision of country office and the close support of JICA Regional Strategy unit for Africa (RSA). The Creation and promotion of sustained and stable growth of economy and poverty reduction by support of development policy ( MKUKUTA that means The national strategy for growth and reduction of poverty 2005-2010 ).New JICA help Tanzania to promote productivity and competitiveness by supporting the development of agriculture and infrastructure, good governance through financial management systems and public administrative development. Also JICA uses different aid modalities like loan, grants, technical cooperation such as training and dispatch of volunteers to different area of field in order to archive its targeted objectives JICA will boos t the impact in the following approach. A more planned structure focus on average to long term development goal More expected aid functioning rolling plans of candidate projects for individual developing countries Speeder project formulation through preliminary survey Assistance tailored to actual requirements synergy of aid schemes 1.2 COMPANY BACKGROUND Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is an organisation which was established since August 1974 and undergoes some organisational reforms which lead to formation of Independence administrative Institution from the special public institution. All these was possible after the passage of the law for partial amendment (November 2006) from the Japan International Cooperation Agency law. This influences the thousands of (Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteers) JOCV to volunteer in different activities around the world. 1.3 JICA RESEARCH INSTITUTE JICA established the JICA Research Institute (JICA-RI) to improve research function on development by drawing on its abundant field experience and to contribute to research findings and leading consultation on global development support. 1.4 NEW JICA Was officially launched on October 1, 2008 with combination/ integration between the existing Japanese International cooperation Agency and the overseas economic cooperation section of the Bank for the cooperation (JBIC) The figure below illustrate the combination of different organisation hence the formulation of NEW JICA Figure 1 1.5 JICA TANZANIA In Tanzani JICA was established since 1980 with basic objective of cooperation in various aspects that aimed into supporting the self initiatives of Tanzania citizens in archiving their social and economic development vision 2020 and 2025 as well the Tanzania growth strategy and poverty reduction (MKUKUTA-The national strategy for growth and reduction of poverty 2005-2010) JICA concentrated on field oriented management, human security and effectiveness, efficiency and speed as the target of the organisational change. JICA also has overseas offices in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Oceania, Middle East, and Europe. These overseas offices has facilitated smooth operation, hence the authority for decision making have been moved to these offices with an aim to ensure the flexible response to the widely varied needs of developing countries. According to article of 30 years of JICA Tanzania office (1980-2010) there is some project which was implemented as shown below Figure 2 F igure 3 The Africa office is located in Nairobi Kenya which was established since October 2009 and become the Regional strategy unit for Africa (RSA) with aim to smoothen JICA operation in the region as well to ensure the flexible response to the widely varied needs of developing countries. This office has been given the authority in order to strengthen activities in project formulation, monitoring and evaluation as well the aid strategy in sub Sahara office. 1.6 JICA OPERATING STRATEGIES To undertake the mixing of management modalities of backing, that is Technical cooperation ODA loan Grant aid Such elements will provide inclusive support such as policy and institutional improvements, improvement of infrastructure, human resource development and capacity building Encouraging development affiliation through precisely grasping of demanding needs of developing countries that spotlight on the field and promoting their own self help effort promptly and through a focus on results. JICA has also promoted the joint venture between public and private sectors so that they can contribute to the experience, technologies, resource of local government, non government organisation and other actors. Enhancing research and knowledge chipping in through the use of JICA Research Institute, NEW JICA will use the understanding acquired in the field of work, building extensive networks of academic from Japan and elsewhere around the world. also to take part in a leadi ng role in guiding the most recent development trends, improve research and knowledge sharing capacities VISION Inclusive development represents an approach to development that stimulate individual to be conscious of the development matter they themselves face, participate in addressing them, and gain from the fruits of such activities. The role of JICA is to offer the successfully backing on this process. Dynamic development refers to the organization of self reinforcing virtuous cycle of mid to long term economic growth and poverty cutback in constantly shifting environment of developing countries where different issues happen simultaneously and get entangled each other. New JICA will offer creative, highly successful support in the direction of archiving the objective MISSION Addressing the global Agenda. The advancement of globalisation brings positive effects, speeding up economic development and providing individual with new opportunities. Also it has the negative side such as the issue of climate change, infectious diseases, terrorism and the raise of economic crises. New JICA will make full use of experience and technologies as it concert with international society to deal with the different globalisation interconnected issues that the developing countries are facing in comprehensive manner. Reduction of poverty through equitable growth JICA will help to shrink the poverty to the society through promoting employment opportunities, providing education health care to the society while JICA supply support for provision of social and economic infrastructure, capacity building, and perfection of policy as well the support in terms of human resource improvement. Improving governance JICA play a very important role to the stable economic development of developing countries. However the undeveloped legal and juridical system and administrative organs symbolize obstacles to efforts and decrease poverty through economic growth. Archiving human security The advancement of globalisation imposes many people in dangers like civil trouble, disasters, poverty and other threats. Human security helps to build abilities to protect themselves against an assortment of threats. New JICA present support bolsters social and institutional ability to deal with threats themselves. Bellow figure illustrate the vision, mission and strategy of New JICA Figure 4 SWOT ANALYISIS FOR NEW JICA STRENTH: Efficient and transparent procedure- JICA overseeing and evaluate operations professionally and transparently and remain constant committed to renewing and streamlining organisation by maintaining high level of accountability. Tackling complex , difficult issues flexibly with the field based approach- JICA accurately grasp the development needs on the ground and design activities with their focus on the field , they deal flexibly with complex, difficult and knotted development issues Fostering expertise for providing professional solution JICA specialised in international cooperation, they perform international competitive work and using expertise and knowledge sharing capabilities to quickly and accurately address wide range of development issues. Archiving synergies of the merger- by smoothly combining diverse and modalities, we make use of our synergies by speeding up the old process, scaling them out in other regions communities. WEAKNESS Poor planning- which caused by unchanged aid policy as well the biasness Lack of human security against threats like civil war , terrorism Lack of sustainable development due to escalation of conflict in various part of Africa and Asia like Somalia, Darfur, Afghanistan Lack of incorporated support infrastructure and human capacity development OPPORTUNITIES ODA offer loan assistance to developing countries beyond a certain income by providing low interest long term and concessional fund JICA provide Grant Aid for counties which have low income levels without the requirement of repayment; grant can be used for recovering essential infrastructure such as schools, water supply, hospital, roads facilities, health and medical care. Dispatch of expertise and provisional of compulsory equipments and guidance JICA dispatch volunteers from (JOCV) handle project via the JICA finance and improvement of education. JICA work together with NGOS , local government , universities, and other stake holders JICA in case of the happening of a large scale tragedy, JICA dispatches Japanese catastrophe relief team in reaction from the government affected. example rescue of lost people, support and medical management THREATS Declining of foreign support which has been decreasing by 40% in last few years. This give hard global situation including the Japan itself and it has become difficult to turn round the trend in merely financial terms. Constantly the assistance from ODA (Office Development Assistance) continues to go down. In coming decade Africa will be one of the most affected regions by climate change. This is due to extensive spread of poverty , drought, unbalanced land allocation Some counties in Africa are likely to face severe water scarcity in the next three decade. Misuse of fund and corruption on fund allocated for projects. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE According to Mullins (2005: 596) defined the organisation structure as the pattern of relationships among positions in the organisation and among members of organisation. Structure makes possible the application of the process of human management and creates framework of order and command through which the activities of organisation can be planned, organised, directed and controlled. The structure defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships, and channel of communication. With the increase size of organisation, there is greater need for carefully designed and purposeful form of organisation, also continual review of structure to ensure that it is the most appropriate form for the particular organisation and in keeping with its growth and development. 2.2 TYPES OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE According to Fontaine (2007) argued that Organisation structure is crucial component of the overall business strategy, just as important as planning, leading and controlling an organisation. Organisation structure is the frame work for answering the following questions; how do we organise jobs into department? Who does what and who report to whom in the chain of command. Some organisation consider their organisation chart as confidential, while other organisation do not and dare to post their organisation chart on the public accessible website. The most common organisation structures are as follows: Functional structure Divisional structure Matrix structure Horizontal linked structure 2.3 FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE: Is the way organisations support themselves into a range of department example productions, sales, research and development and accounting department. Advantages of functional organisation structure It tolerate the decision making and give management control in the administration encourage individual profession path through assuming decision making Functional structure inspire stability and efficiency Disadvantages of functional organisation structure It leading to inter departments conflict and poor communication Staff will have a preference to classify themselves with their department or section but not with the organisation. Communication and alliance between the department is hard 2.4 DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE Divisional structure is not formulated on the grouping of people according to their skill rather in placing them according to their similar abilities where they are required in the organisation. Advantages of Divisional structure are Due to answerability , the reaction to customer is excellent Divisional structure can facilitate to stimulate managerial skills and executive skills, since staff are concerned to all other functions Disadvantages of Divisional structure There is decline of specialisation as well the professional skills Due to departments performing the same odd jobs within the administration, there is redundant of effort and resources. 2.5 MATRIX STRUCTURE Matrix structure involves the combination of functional and divisional structure, but yet the matrix operation remains in its own unique style. The manager of each project does not have possession of employees at all. He is accountable to manage his staff from their functional area in so that to monitor his project from conception to finishing point Advantages of matrix structure It is very well-organized especially when resources are limited Project can start quickly since there is no need to employ workforce from outside Cross functional skills to employees due to their attachment in various projects Disadvantages of Matrix structure Employees turn out to be upset and puzzled with chain of command ( who is the head of department or project manager) The project manager may apply for the best project support workforce from organisation as the results can be the root of competitions matrix structure is the most challenging and stressful than others 2.6 HORIZONTAL LINKED STRUCURE A horizontally linked structure groups people along the value of chain of process that produce market, and service the firms offering. 5.0 The figure below illustrate the horizontal organisation structure RUN BUILD PLAN 2.7 DIMENSION OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE According to Fontaine (2007) argued that think of any organisation structure and visualise an organisation chart in two dimensions. There is vertical dimension in which the organisation is considered to be either a Tall or Flat structure and there is the Horizontal dimension in which an organisation is considered to be either wide or Narrow The vertical dimension organisational structure The vertical dimension basically describe who is in charge of who is in charge of whom and who is responsible for decision making inside the organisation. It is hierarchy of authority and within it we find the span of control Broader span of control and fewer levels of authority results in a flat hierarchical structure while the narrow span of control and more level of authority results in tall hierarchical structure 6.0 7 The figures below illustrate the Tall and Flat structures. Tall Organisation structure has (5) five number of level while the span of control is (2) two. The above structure represents TALL STRUCTURE Flat organisation structure has (6) level of span Control, while the number of level is (3) three. The figure above represents FLAT STRUCTURE 2.8 SPAN OF CONTROL: According to Mullins (2007. 577, 5780) explains that the Span of control arises in line authority and refers to the number of subordinates who report directly to a manager or supervisor. V.A. Graicuna developed a mathematical formula for the span control. The limitation of the number of subordinate who can efficiently be supervised is based on the total of the direct and cross relationships. R= n (2n /n + n-1) Where n represent the number of subordinate,R is the number of interrelationships. Factors that influencing span of control Span of control can be affected by the following factors: The nature of organisation , the complication of the work and the likeness of functions and the scope of tasks The amount of time the manager has accessible from other activities to use up with subordinates The availability and training of subordinate staff, the strength of their motivation and commitment and the extent of direction and guidance needed. The usefulness of coordination and the nature of communication and control systems. The physical place or geographical spread of subordinates The length of scalar chain this implies that if the span of control is too wide will create the following problems; it will become not easy to administer the subordinate successfully and cause further stress to the manager, they may be short of time to carry out all activities properly, limited opportunities for encouragement and may lead to slowness to take on change or the introduction of new change or process. A lso if the span of control is too narrow may present the trouble of coordination and uniformity in decision making that obstruct effective communication across the organisation. Narrow span of control increases administration costs and may lead to extra level of authority Need for a balanced structure The combination of span of control and chain of command determines the overall pyramid shape of the organisation whether the hierarchical structure is flat or tall 2.9 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE USED BY NEW JICA Figure 8 below represent organisation chart of jica The New JICA operates its activities in a well selected structure which suits its unique strategy of operation and management activities. The organisation is considered to have 14 span of control (regional strategy unit for Africa) (RSA) therefore the structure is Tall with Matrix organisation structure. This is due to decentralisation approach which is applied, where some of decision making are carried out by regional office (RSA) instead of head office in Japan. The channel of communication is highly structured and is open to allow flow of information Advantage of matrix structure It is well-organized especially when resources are limited The project can be quickly established because there are sufficient staffs Cross functional skills to employees are encouraged They deal with numerous projects Working with and learning from other professional with variety of skills Disadvantages of matrix structure It leads to confusion and disappointment to employees due to approach used that is chain of command and order. It can lead to conflict due to observation of deadline Recommendations Since the advantages of matrix organisation structure exceeded the disadvantages, it is wise to keep on use this organisation structure because it is more efficient than others. It is an environment in which the individual excel Matrix combine functional structure and divisional structure, but at the end it operate like neither CHAPTER THREE 3.0 ORGANISATION CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR According to Cook, C et al (1997, p 112) defined organization culture as the fundamental assumption people share about an organizations values , beliefs, norms, symbols, language , rituals and myths. All of the expressive elements that gives meaning to organization membership and are accepted as guide to behaviour. Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the learning and application of knowledge in relation to how people, individuals, and groups perform in organizations. It interprets people organization affairs in terms of the entire person, entire group, entire organization, and entire social system. Its intention is to build better relationships by achieving individual objectives, organizational objectives, and public objectives. The following are the JICA organization culture: According to capacity development handbook for JICA staff (2004) urged that JICA staff, especially those in the regional departments at the headquarters and at the field offices, have the important role to play in ensuring that JICAS programs/projects support partner countries capacity development process. Staff must have a broad knowledge and understanding of the country context including the latest status of development and the direction such as economic liberalisation and governance reforms. JICA staff needs to have the vision of JICA in cooperation in the capacity development process such as, when and how JICA can contribute to the process. With such broad knowledge and understanding, the staff will be able to ensure the relevance and effectiveness of JICA programs and projects through all its stages. JICA staff is responsible for appraising appropriate project objectives and approaches (which approach is appropriate for each recipient, how large the scale should be, and when the cooperation should start.) JICA staff is responsible for appraising appropriate project objectives and approaches (which approach is appropriate for each recipient, how large the scale should be, and when the cooperation should start.) Addressing the universal agenda of climate change , water, food, energy, infectious diseases and financing JICA fight to reduce poverty of an individual all over the world through inclusive and equitable growth. Networking JICA has a network of 17 domestic offices and 96 overseas bureaus and has undertaken missions in approximately 150 countries Efforts to support the independence of individuals with physical disabilities by reinforcing message and sign language in partnership with physically disabled alumni Motivate employees and communication between superior and subordinate staff. CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE 4.1 What is Change Management? Change management is a set of processes engaged to make sure that important changes are implemented in a controlled and organized manner. One of the objectives of change management is the arrangement of people and culture with considered shifts in the organisation, to defeat opposition to change in order to boost engagement and the attainment of the organisations goal for successful change. Achieving sustainable change begins with apparent considerate of the present situation of the organisation, followed by the execution of suitable and targeted strategies. The centre of change management is on the result the change will create the new activities that must be understood. Change processes regularly relate to a task and/or structural change. A broad change management approach should show the way to the required objectives and generate a sense of ownership, facilitate 4.2 Leading and managing change The implementation of any major change process often succeeds or fails because of the leadership of that change procedure. Leadership engages people to make, adjust and meet the demands of the predictable future. Management plays a vital part in creation and make changes happen, it motivate the doing. Leadership encourages the change; it is what energises the hearts and minds of staff and develop and build ability to act in response to future change Leadership and management are two distinct and complimentary systems of action. Each has its own function and characteristic (Kotter, 1999:51).The table below outlines some of the characteristics essential to driving significant change initiatives at JICA Managers Leaders Implement the vision Plan, budget and organise the team Maintain order and system Manage the impact of change Measure day-to-day Control and problem solve Contribute to teams Seek step-by-step improvement Create the vision Align people and inspire them Create and build processes Create change proactively Keep the values visible Collaborate Motivate and inspire Continue to challenge the status quo 4.3 Why is organisational change difficult to accomplish? According to Mckinsey (2006) and Thomson (1998) argues that People are afraid of the unknown, many think things are fine the way they are and dont understand the need of change. Recognising the need to change and acting on it can be difficult decision for leaders and manager to make. Resistance is a natural defence mechanism for those losing something. The closer we are to something or someone the greater the grief or loss. The resistance can be due to loss of security, money, pride or satisfaction, friends, freedom, responsibility, good working conditions, status lack of respect, objectionable manner, negative attitude, personal criticism, not having had input, bad timing, challenge to authority or second hand information. Change must absorb the people and must not be imposed upon the people. If the organisation imposes new stuff on people there will be difficulties due to participation, involvement and open, early and full communication are the important factors. People and team need to be empowered to find their own solutions and responses with facilitation and support from managers and tolerance and compassion from the leaders and executive. 4.4 Change management principles At all times involve and agree support from people within system (system = environment, processes, culture, relationships, behaviours, etc., whether personal or organisational). Understand where you/the organisation is at the moment. Understand where you want to be, when, why, and what the measures will be for having got there. Plan development towards above No.iii in appropriate achievable measurable stages. Communicate, involve, enable and facilitate involvement from people, as early and openly and as fully as is possible. 4.5 John P Kotters eight steps to successful change John P Kotter (b 1947) is a professor and leading thinker and author on organizational change management at Harvard University. Kotters highly regarded books Leading Change (1995) and The Heart of Change (2002) explain a supportive model for understanding and managing change. Each stage acknowledges a key principle identified by Kotter relating to peoples response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and then change. Kotters eight step change model can be summarised as: Increase urgency inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant. Build the guiding team get the right people in place with the right emotional commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels. Get the vision right get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy focus on emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency. Communicate for buy-in Involve as many people as possible, communicate the essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to peoples needs. De-clutter communications make technology work for you rather than against. Empowers action Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots of support from leaders reward and recognise progress and achievements. Create short-term wins Set aims that are easy to achieve in bite-size chunks. Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones. Dont let up Foster and encourage determination and persistence ongoing change enc ourage ongoing progress reporting highlight achieved and future milestones. Make change stick Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment, promotion, and new change leaders. Weave change into culture 4.6 JICA AND MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE JICA reforms was stared since October 2003, when was public announced as the independent administrative institution. The reforms was intended specifically in organisational and operations for the purpose of implementing aid activities more successful and resourceful The integration of the existing JICA and the overseas economic cooperation section of the Japan Bank for international cooperation (JBIC) result into formulation of New JICA. The new JICA is headed by Mrs Sadako Ogata who was formally the head of UN Refugees Agency (UNHCR) between 1991-2000 Formulation of new JICA increases the number of its operation through establishment of 17 domestic offices and 96 overseas offices while the number of projects increased up to 150 projects worldwide. The changes has lead to the establishment of New JICA Research Institute that enhances research activities on development by drawing on its abundant field knowledge and to contribute to research result and leading dialogue on in ternational development support. The reforms of the JICA focus on integration of 3 schemes of Japan development assistance Technical assistance Concessionary loan extended by (JBI) for overseas economic cooperation operation Grant Aid with no obligation for repayment New JICA impact the changes in the following manner To focus on medium and long term development through encouragement of public and private partnerships, pooling of resources as well the experience and technologies. Predictable aid; operational rolling plans of current project for a particular developing country. JICA play role of strengthening partnership with international organisations and other donor to widen the framework for development assistance. Speedier project formulation: seamless identification through preparatory survey JICA offer support in ways that finest match the stage of development in every recipient nation, taking a long term perspective and present seamless support to ensure sustainable growth into the future. Assistance tailored to real need synergy of three (3) aid schemes CHAPTER FIVE RECOMENDATION AND CONCLUSION .